Nuclear power has globally emerged as a critical solution to the contemporary energy insecurity. States are pledging resources to expand their nuclear capacities due to the technology’s minimal dependence on external factors, low carbon emissions, higher capacity factor, and limited spatial requirements. In Pakistan, while nuclear energy currently represents a modest share in energy mix, it plays an increasingly pivotal role in efforts to enhance energy security, improve power generation efficiency, and diversify the power sources to support long-term socioeconomic development.
Pakistan’s Nuclear Regulatory Framework
Pakistan’s nuclear energy program began in 1956 with the establishment of the Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission (PAEC), which remains the chief operator of the country’s nuclear infrastructure. The Pakistan Nuclear Regulatory Authority (PNRA) oversees the safety and regulatory compliance, while the Strategic Planning Division (SPD) under the ambit of the National Command Authority (NCA) is responsible for the physical protection of nuclear material.
In Pakistan, several key national institutions are involved in the life cycle of nuclear power plants. PAEC, PNRA, National Transmission and Dispatch Company (NTDC), National Electric Power Regulatory Authority (NEPRA), and Central Power Purchasing Agency (CCPA) are associated in the operation, while PAEC and PNRA are responsible for decommissioning of nuclear power plants in Pakistan.
Pakistan possesses ‘world-class’ nuclear safety and security architecture. The Physical Protection System (PPS) of nuclear material operates through a multi-layered defense mechanism involving detection, delay, and response systems, covering the nuclear material from source to the products. This approach is complimented by mobile laboratories, regional inspectorates and emergency directories and emergency systems such as the Nuclear Emergency Management System (NEMS). All these efforts are coordinated by the central multiagency coordination cell NuSECC.
Periodic safety and ageing management reviews and inspections of civil structures are carried out quarterly and design modifications are performed. These activities are also reported to the International Atomic Energy Commission (IAEA). The stringent PNRA regulatory requirements govern site inspections and prioritize and public awareness. Moreover, Pakistan maintains effective radioactive waste management system including a spent fuel dry storage facility at Karachi Nuclear Power Generating Station (KNPGS). This facility employs internationally acclaimed techniques such as filtration, ion exchange, evaporation, solidification, vitrification, and drumming.
Pakistan’s Nuclear Regime
Pakistan’s civil nuclear regime is anchored in comprehensive legislative and regulatory frameworks. This structure includes the PAEC ordinance (1956), the PNRA ordinance (2001), and the National Nuclear Security Action Plan (NNSAP). Pakistan fulfills its commitments under United Nations Resolution 1540, submitting regular reports on nuclear safety and security and nonproliferation efforts.
Pakistan’s export control and regulatory regime aligns with the international best practices and norms for nuclear safety and security. It lays out a stringent export control framework. Export Control Act 2004 of Pakistan is internationally acclaimed. There are tens of national regulations such as Pakistan Nuclear Safety and Radiation Protection Regulation (1990), Regulations For Licensing of Nuclear Installations (PAK/909), and Regulations on Radioactive Waste Management (PAK/915) comprehensively covering regulations of nuclear and radioactive material from ‘cradle to death’. Pakistan also actively participates in international nuclear security platforms such as the Global Initiative To Combat Nuclear Terrorism (GICNT), and IAEA’s Incident and Trafficking Database (ITDB).
Pakistan’s Nuclear Technological Capabilities
Pakistan foray into nuclear energy began with the first nuclear project PARR-1 in 1965 and KANUPP in 1972. Overtime, PAEC developed indigenous capabilities through research institutions such as PINSTECH, and nuclear training centers like Pakistan Institute of Engineering and Applied Sciences (PIEAS) and CHASNUPP Centre of Nuclear Training (CHASCENT).
Currently, Pakistan operates six nuclear power plants generating 3,530 megawatt of electricity. Four of these nuclear power plants, scilicet C-1 to C-4, Chashma are located at Chashma Nuclear Power Generating Station (CNPGS). Additionally, the Karachi coastal power project, which is now known as Karachi Nuclear Power Generating Station (KNPGS), comprises two NPPs that are K-2 and K-3 and generates a gross of 2,200 Megawatts. As of 2025, 1 nuclear reactor C-5 is under construction. PARR-1 and PARR-2 research reactors. CHASHNUPP-1 to CHASHNUPP-4 and both KANUPP-2 and KANUPP-3 are pressurized water reactors (PWR), whereas KANUPP-1 was a pressurized heavy water reactor (PHWR), which was shut down in 2021 upon its successful completion of 50 years of service.
Following Canada’s cutoff of nuclear fuel by Canada in 1975, Pakistan successfully indigenized its nuclear spare parts and fuel. China has since played a crucial role in construction later nuclear power plants such as C-1 with net generation capacity of 325 Megawatt.
Pakistan’s Nuclear Energy Mix
Currently, Pakistan’s energy mix consists of 8.4% of nuclear energy which is equivalent to 15.3 TWh. The meagre oil resources push the country into the spiral of importing the major sources of its energy mix and meeting up 80% of the local demands. The major contributor, fossil fuel with its 63% share, is unsustainable due to its carbon emission concerns. Similarly, the other notable sources of energy as hydel power (25.4%), thermal (59.6%), and wind (6.4%) are also unable to meet Pakistan’s energy needs due to the factors of low-capacity factor and limited supply.
Despite hurdles to attain nuclear technologies and its modest share, Pakistan recognizes the significance of nuclear energy in diversifying its energy portfolio. Pakistan envisions the national goal of electricity generation through nuclear energy of up to 25% (40,000 MW) by 2050 in Pakistan’s Nuclear Energy Vision 2050 which was driven by Pakistan’s energy security issues. In its National Power Policy 2013, Pakistan envisions establishing a ‘consumer-centric’ power generation by reducing the average cost of electricity and eliminating load-shedding.
Pakistan’s International Nuclear Collaborations
Since joining the IAEA in 1957 and being among its founding members, Pakistan has remained an active member of international nuclear community. It is affiliated with the World Association of Nuclear Operators (WANO), CANDU owners’ group and other technical collaborations. It is a major beneficiary of the technical cooperation and follows the facility-specific INFCIRC/66.
Human capital development is a national priority. Under the aegis of the Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission (PAEC), several training institutions operate including PIEAS, CHASCENT, National Centre for Non-Destructive Training (NCNDT), Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science and Technology (PINSTECH), Pakistan Welding Institute (PWI), Karachi Institute of Power Engineering (KINPOE), and PNRA run National Institute of Safety and Security (NISAS) which is also recognized as IAEA collaboration center for nuclear safety and security. These institutes collaborate with the IAEA to conduct symposiums, training workshops, and human factor performance verification.
Pakistan also maintains a national registry that tracks the life cycle of nuclear and radioactive material following ‘cradle to grave.’ The registry defined five categories of radioactive sources classification, aligned with IAEA TECHDOC 1388. Pakistan is also an active member of global nuclear security initiatives such as the incident and trafficking database (ITDB) the Global Initiative to Combat Nuclear Terrorism (GICNT), the Convention on Physical Protection of Nuclear Material (CPPNM), and the Convention on Nuclear Safety (CNS).
Challenges and Recommendations
Despite notable achievements, Pakistan’s civil nuclear program faces technological and infrastructure limitations. KANUPP-1 retired in 2021 due to its old operational design which hindered its operational efficiency by lowering its capacity factor to 55.6% compared to the global average nuclear capacity factor of 80-90%. To cater financial constraints, tech-energy cooperation can be one of the solutions. The country can leverage 22 data centers to invest in the latest technologies, such as Small modular reactors (SMRs).
Pakistan maintains an impeccable track record in nuclear safety and security supported by internationally recognized regulatory framework. However, access to advanced nuclear technology remains limited due to broader geopolitical dynamics of the nuclear nonproliferation regime. Being a non-signatory to the Nonproliferation Treaty (NPT), it faces challenges in accessing nuclear technology because its political restrictions hamper Pakistan’s national interest. Among these challenges is the shortage of uranium. To cater for the needs especially when the Nuclear Suppliers’ Group (NSG) is driven by geopolitics, Pakistan has begun exploring alternative options to meet the uranium needs.
Pakistan made significant development in nuclear energy program even in the absence of equitable international support and challenges posed by geopolitically influenced restrictions on access to the nuclear technology. The country gas built proven technical expertise, skilled workforce and critical infrastructure for the peaceful uses of nuclear energy. In recognition of these achievements, IAEA has consistently supported and collaborated with Pakistan. Moving ahead, it is inevitable for the country to bolster international collaborations and promote its widely acclaimed nuclear safety and security track record.
Author: Anam Murad Khan, Research Associate, Center for International Strategic Studies, Islamabad.
